Copernicus and the Heliocentric Universe Theory
Copernicus’s Heliocentric Theory of the Universe, today known as Copernicus’ theory, is an important scientific discovery he made in the field of astronomy. This theory was proposed by the Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus, who lived in the 16th century.
Set against the previously prevalent Ptolemaic system, this theory proposes that planets move in a heliocentric universe, not an earth-centered universe. In the Ptolemaic system, while the Earth was considered the center of the universe, planets and other celestial bodies were tried to be explained with complex circular motion paths and additional cycles called epics.
According to Copernicus’ theory, while the planets revolved around the Sun in circular orbits in the heliocentric universe, the Earth also revolved around the Sun as a planet. This theory was supported by observation data and mathematical calculations and had a scientific basis.
Copernicus’ theory was an important turning point for modern astronomy and scientific thought. However, he had difficulty in gaining acceptance during his period and was subjected to various criticisms. Later, this theory was strengthened and accepted by scientists such as Galileo Galilei and Johannes Kepler.
Today, the heliocentric theory of the universe has gained scientific acceptance and the Ptolemaic system has been almost completely abandoned. This theory played an important role in understanding the structure of the universe, which formed the basis of modern astronomy and space exploration.
Newton and the Mathematical Description of the Universe
Sir Isaac Newton is known as one of the important scientists of the 17th century and made great contributions to the fields of mathematics, physics and astronomy. In particular, his important contributions to the mathematical description of the universe shaped the science that is now called classical mechanics.
One of Newton’s most important contributions was his famous “Principia Mathematica” (Mathematical Principles), which deals with the concepts of motion and mass. This work was published in 1687 and laid the foundations of modern physical science. Here are Newton’s mathematical description of the universe and some of his contributions:
Universal Law of Gravitation: Newton defined the concept of universal gravitation, where objects on Earth attract each other. This law states how the gravitational force between two objects varies depending on the size of the mass and the distance between the objects. It is one of the cornerstones of the mathematical description of the universe.
Laws of Motion: Newton formulated three fundamental laws of motion known as the “Three Laws of Motion”. The first law states that an object will tend to stop or move. The second law explains that the force acting on an object, proportional to the mass, will determine the acceleration of the object. The third law is called the “action-reaction principle” and states that every action will cause a reaction of equal magnitude but in the opposite direction.
Differential and Integral Calculus: Newton made important contributions to differential and integral calculus by developing mathematical methods. These mathematical methods have facilitated the mathematical solving of physics problems and have become a powerful tool for understanding the motion and dynamics of the universe.
These works of Newton enabled the universe to be described mathematically and natural phenomena to be explained by mathematical laws. These basic principles have been used for a long time in the field of physics known as classical mechanics and are still valid in many applications today. However, in the early 20th century, along with Albert Einstein’s special and general theories of relativity, new and more complex models were developed in the field of physics. Therefore, it is understood that classical mechanics has some limitations and extended theories are needed.
Darwin and the Theory of Evolution: Acceptance of the Idea of Common Descendants
Charles Darwin was one of the most influential and important scientists of the 19th century and played a critical role in the development of the theory of natural selection and evolution. Darwin’s basic idea is to explain that living things descend from a common lineage and that species evolve over time.
Darwin set out on a voyage of discovery around the world between 1831 and 1836 on a ship called the HMS Beagle. During this journey, he studied the diversity and adaptive nature of species in different geographical regions. He later published these observations and experiences in his famous book “The Origin of Species”.
At the heart of the theory of evolution lies a process called natural selection. According to Darwin, living things interact with their environment, and environmental conditions create various pressures that affect survival and reproductive success. There is genetic variation among different individuals, and some individuals are better adapted to environmental conditions.
Natural selection enables these more adaptable individuals to pass their genes on to the next generation, increasing their chances of survival and reproduction. Over time, compatible traits accumulate in the gene pool and species change. This process causes species to evolve over time and descend from a common ancestor.
Darwin’s theory of evolution was highly controversial at the time, and it took a long time for it to gain wider acceptance in the scientific world. However, over the years, many scientific studies, fossil evidence, and genetic studies have supported the accuracy of Darwin’s theory.
Today, the theory of evolution is accepted as a fundamental scientific principle in biology and shapes many scientific disciplines. The idea that living things descend from a common lineage is a cornerstone of biology and has increased our understanding of the diversity and complexity of species. The theory of evolution is also of great importance today in research in genetics, paleontology, ecology, and other biology.
Einstein and Theories of Relativity: Understanding Space-Time and New Dimensions
Albert Einstein is considered one of the most important scientists of the 20th century and revolutionized the field of physics with his theories of special relativity and general relativity. These theories have brought new dimensions to the understanding of space and time.
Special Relativity Theory:
Einstein formulated his special theory of relativity in 1905. This theory states that observers moving at a uniform and constant speed should be considered relative relative, as the speed of light is always the same. This theory, in particular, introduced the “space-time fusion”, a concept that fundamentally changed the relationship between space and time.
In special relativity, the idea that time and space exist separately and are independent dimensions has been abandoned. Instead, a single four-dimensional structure called space-time is used to describe the motion of objects. In this four-dimensional structure, three dimensions represent space and one dimension represents time.
Einstein also proposed a phenomenon called “time dilation”. Observers of a moving object clock their own clocks slower than the object’s clock. This effect occurs depending on the speed of the object and the strength of the gravitational field.
General Theory of Relativity:
Einstein formulated the general theory of relativity in 1915, explaining the phenomenon of gravity more comprehensively. General relativity deals with the gravitational effect in space-time defined in special relativity.
According to this theory, objects of great mass (for example, planets or stars) create pits in space-time and attract other objects into these pits. These pits represent the gravitational field and affect the paths and movements of objects. General relativity also shows that time and space can bend due to the presence of mass.
General relativity has made a great leap forward in the scientific community’s understanding of the structure of space and time, and has passed many experimental tests over time. In particular, general relativity is of great importance in many fields such as describing the orbits of planets, predicting the existence of large black holes, and understanding cosmological processes.
Einstein’s theories of relativity formed the basis of modern physical science and have become an important tool for understanding the nature of space-time. These theories are still at the center of scientific research today.
Discovery of DNA with Watson and Crick: Understanding Genetic Heritage and a Revolution in Biotechnology
James Watson and Francis Crick are considered to be one of the most important scientists of the 20th century, and their discovery of the structure of DNA revolutionized the understanding of genetic inheritance and biotechnology.
Watson and Crick’s breakthrough discovery was described in an article published in the journal “Nature” in 1953. In this article, it was revealed that the DNA molecule has a double-stranded structure and consists of basic building units called nucleotides. This discovery was revolutionary in molecular biology and an important step towards explaining the basis of genetic inheritance.
The DNA molecule is the basic unit in which genetic information is stored and transmitted. Watson and Crick’s discovery provided a basis for understanding how DNA works and replicates. Their model showed how DNA has a double helix structure and there is a complementary pairing between base pairs. This makes it possible to copy DNA and transmit genetic information from generation to generation.
Watson and Crick’s discovery opened up many applications to genetics and biotechnology:
Genetic Engineering: Understanding the structure of DNA has made it possible to manipulate genes and perform genetic engineering. In this way, many useful applications have been developed, such as regulating genes in the treatment of diseases and increasing the productivity of plants.
Advances in Medicine: The discovery of the structure of DNA has been an important step in the understanding and diagnosis of genetic diseases. Thanks to genetic tests, it has become possible to have information about many genetic diseases and to develop treatment methods.
DNA Sequencing Technology: DNA sequencing is a technology used to determine the basic base sequence of DNA. Watson and Crick’s discovery formed the basis of DNA sequencing technology, which is now widely used in genetic research and medical practice.
Watson and Crick’s discovery of the structure of DNA marked a turning point in biology and revolutionized the understanding of genetic inheritance and biotechnology. This discovery formed the basis of modern genetic research and still plays an important role in biology and medicine today.
Fleming and Antibiotics: A Milestone in Fighting Microbes
Alexander Fleming made an important discovery in 1928, discovering the nature of antibiotics. This discovery marked an important milestone in the fight against microbes.
Fleming, London’s St. Mary’s Hospital, he did an experiment. He examined a sample of Staphylococcus bacteria cultured in a Petri dish. However, an error occurred in Fleming’s lab and another sample was contaminated with the mold fungus Penicillium notatum. Interestingly, he noticed that the bacterial cells around the mold had died and the mold had an antibacterial effect.
Fleming began to investigate further the antibacterial effect of this mold fungus and tried to isolate this antibiotic, which he called “Penicillin.” Penicillin was the world’s first antibiotic found to be effective against bacteria and able to kill microbes.
This discovery was revolutionary in medicine and health. Previously, bacterial diseases from infections and injuries could be incurable and very deadly. The discovery of penicillin revolutionized the treatment of infections and saved many lives.
Antibiotics are drugs used to treat bacterial infections. These drugs inhibit the growth of bacteria or cause the death of bacterial cells. The discovery of penicillin also inspired the later development of other antibiotics.
However, over time, the overuse and misuse of antibiotics has led to the emergence of resistant strains of bacteria. This has led to a serious health problem called “antibiotic resistance”. Antibiotic resistance causes some bacteria to become resistant to antibiotics and make infections more difficult to treat.
The discovery and use of antibiotics has created a major breakthrough in the medical field and has become an important weapon in the fight against microbes. However, in order to protect this valuable resource, it is of great importance to use antibiotics carefully and appropriately and to take measures against the development of resistance.
Turing and the Computer Revolution: The Beginning of the Digital Age
Alan Turing is one of the important mathematicians and computer scientists of the 20th century. He is considered one of the cornerstones of the computer revolution and contributed significantly to the beginning of the digital age.
One of Turing’s most important contributions was the introduction of an abstract concept known as the “Turing machine”. In his 1936 article “Berechenbarkeit” (Computability), he investigated whether it was possible to construct a mathematical algorithm to solve a problem. The Turing machine is an abstract computational model that can be used to solve a problem, and many algorithms and computational problems are better understood thanks to this abstract concept that forms the basis of computer science.
Turing’s other major contribution was his work on the British code-breaking team during WWII. The mathematical methods he developed to break the encryption machine called “Enigma” were used for an important exchange of information that affected the course of the war. These studies formed the basis of modern cryptography and computer security.
However, one of Turing’s most important contributions was the thought experiment known as the “Turing test.” In this experiment, a test is conducted to determine whether a machine is capable of human-like thinking. If a human cannot distinguish between a machine and another human by communicating, the machine is considered to have passed the Turing test. This thought experiment inspired artificial intelligence research and computers to achieve human-like thinking.
Turing’s work formed the basis of computer science and contributed directly to the computer revolution. His ideas and theories are considered to be one of the important elements that formed the beginning of the digital age and the foundations of today’s technological developments. Turing’s work was an important milestone in laying the foundations of computer science and in the development of computers.
