Physical:
Classical Physics:
Classical physics is an ancient and fundamental branch of physical science that studies fundamental physical laws and principles. Classical physics includes Isaac Newton’s laws of motion, James Clerk Maxwell’s work on electromagnetism, and thermodynamics. Additionally, classical physics is used to explain the behavior of large objects and phenomena observed at the macroscopic level.
Classical physics gives very effective and accurate results to explain the behavior of objects at the macroscopic level. However, it is insufficient to explain events that occur at very high speeds or on very small scales (such as the behavior of subatomic particles). Therefore, modern branches of physics such as quantum mechanics and special theory of relativity have been developed since the early 20th century. These fields are used to explain situations that exceed the limits of the rules of classical physics.
Classical physics forms the basis of many fields of engineering and technology that are widely used in daily life. For example, automobile engineering, building design, electrical engineering and many other fields are based on the principles of classical physics. Therefore, classical physics is considered one of the cornerstones of physical science.
Modern Physics:
Modern physics is a term covering branches of physical science derived from classical physics and developed especially from the early 20th century. Modern physics studies physical laws and theories that apply under different and more complex conditions than classical physics. Here are some important topics covered in modern physics:
Quantum Mechanics: Quantum mechanics is a theory that explains the behavior of particles at the subatomic level. Classical physics cannot accurately explain phenomena at this level, but quantum mechanics is used to study the behavior and interactions of particles such as electrons, protons, and neutrons. Quantum mechanics includes concepts such as wave functions, probability densities, and the uncertainty principle.
Special Theory of Relativity: Developed by Albert Einstein, the special theory of relativity explains the behavior of objects moving at high speeds. This theory suggests that the speed of light is a universal limit and that time and space are observer dependent.
General Theory of Relativity: The general theory of relativity developed by Einstein explains how gravity works and the curvature of space-time. This theory explains how space-time changes due to the presence of large masses and how objects move in this warped space-time.
Cosmology: Cosmology is the field that studies large-scale cosmic questions such as the origin, structure, and evolution of the universe. Cosmological models such as the big bang theory use modern physics theories to explain how the universe expanded and evolved.
Particle Physics: Particle physics is a field that studies the properties and interactions of fundamental particles (quarks, leptons, bosons, etc.). High energy particle accelerators such as the large hadron collider (LHC) are used in particle physics experiments.
Cosmic Radiation and Dark Matter/Antimatter Research: Modern physics examines concepts such as dark matter, dark energy, and antimatter to understand the more mysterious aspects of the universe.
Modern physics is used to explain situations that lead to incompatibility with classical physics and to understand more complex systems. These areas attract great attention in both theoretical and experimental research and contribute to today’s technological developments.
Astronomy and Space Science:
Astronomy and space science represent two different scientific fields that study the nature, components, movements and origin of the universe and space. Studies in both fields are aimed at gaining more information about space and astronomical objects through observation and analysis.
Astronomy:
Astronomy is the branch of science that deals with the observation, classification and understanding of stars, planets, galaxies, black holes, celestial bodies and other astronomical objects.
Astronomy tries to understand how these objects are formed and how they evolve by examining the movements, properties, evolution of objects in the sky and the structure of the universe.
It has two main branches: observational and theoretical astronomy. Observational astronomy involves studying the sky with telescopes and other observation instruments, while theoretical astronomy aims to explain astronomical phenomena using mathematical models and physical laws.
Astronomers make astronomical observations to study universal questions such as the lifespan of stars, galaxy formation, the expansion of the universe, the properties of black holes, and many more.
Space science:
Space science is a branch of science that studies the physical and chemical properties of space, the structures, atmospheres and evolution of planets and other celestial bodies.
Space science studies how extraterrestrial planets, satellites and other celestial bodies form, how they change their atmospheres and surfaces, and how these objects can be explored for humanity.
Space science tries to understand the nature of these objects by examining planets such as Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, asteroids and comets located outside the Solar System, through methods such as space missions and satellite observations.
Additionally, space science seeks answers to fundamental questions of the universe, such as the origin of life and the existence of other life forms in the universe.
Both fields attempt to unravel the mysteries of the universe and space using observation, analysis and scientific methods. Astronomy and space science are important branches of science that help scientists and researchers understand what is going on in the universe and help humanity better explore the universe. In addition, space exploration and observations have contributed to many application areas by pushing the limits of technological developments.
Chemical:
Basic Chemistry Topics:
Chemistry is a branch of science that studies matter, its components, and how these components interact. Basic chemistry topics cover the main principles and basic concepts of chemistry and include the topics listed below:
Description and Properties of the Matter:
The concept of matter and the definition of matter.
Properties of substances: mass, volume, density, temperature, color, odor, etc.
Solid, liquid and gaseous states of matter.
Atoms and Elements:
Structure of the atom: protons, neutrons and electrons.
Periodic table: the table in which the elements are listed and the meaning of their symbols.
Chemical symbols and names of elements.
Chemical Compounds and Bonds:
Definition and properties of chemical compound.
Ionic and covalent bonds.
Chemical reactions: the creation and decomposition of chemical compounds.
Chemical Reactions:
Basic concepts of chemical reactions: reactants, products, reaction equations.
Chemical equilibrium: How reactions can proceed in forward and reverse directions.
Chemical Thermodynamics:
Thermodynamic concepts such as temperature, heat and entropy.
Thermochemistry: Heat changes and energy relations of chemical reactions.
Acids and Bases:
Definition and properties of acids and bases.
pH scale and acid-base reactions.
Chemical Balance:
Concept of chemical equilibrium and equilibrium constants.
Le Chatelier’s principle: How we can affect an equilibrium when it is interfered with.
Molecular Chemistry:
Molecular structure and geometry of chemical compounds.
Chemical bonds and molecular shapes.
Solutions and Chemical Kinetics:
Solution concept and solution types.
Chemical kinetics: Rate of chemical reactions and affecting factors.
Chemical Analysis and Spectroscopy:
Chemical analysis techniques: gravimetry, titration, spectroscopy, chromatography.
Spectroscopy: Analysis of components by absorption or emission of light.
Chemical Bonds and Molecular Structures:
Types of chemical bonds: Ionic, covalent, metallic bonds.
Effect of molecular structure and geometry on chemical properties.
These basic chemistry topics are important to understand the basic principles of chemistry. Chemistry provides a fundamental foundation for other branches of science (biology, physics, materials science, etc.) and is used in many daily life applications. Chemistry helps us understand events at the molecular level and grasp how chemical reactions occur.
Organic chemistry:
Organic chemistry is a branch of chemistry that studies carbon-based compounds. Carbon forms the basis of organic compounds and is the main focus of organic chemistry. Organic chemistry studies how carbon bonds with various other elements and the structure, properties, and chemical reactions of organic compounds.
Organic chemistry deals with the design and production of naturally occurring organic compounds as well as new compounds synthesized under laboratory conditions. Therefore, organic chemistry contributes to both basic scientific research and applied studies. Here are the main topics of organic chemistry and some related concepts:
Organic Compounds: Compounds in which carbon atoms are bonded with at least one hydrogen atom are considered organic compounds. Carbon forms the basic structure of organic chemistry and allows the formation of a wide variety of organic molecules because it is an atom that can form four bonds.
Functional Groups: There are functional groups found in organic molecules that determine the chemical reactivity of the molecule. Example functional groups include hydroxyl (-OH), carboxyl (-COOH), amine (-NH2), aldehyde (-CHO), ketone (-C=O), ester (-COO-), and amide (-CONH2).
Organic Reactions: There are many different chemical reactions in organic chemistry. These reactions may involve conversion of molecules from one functional group to another or a change in the structure of the molecule. Examples include esterification, oxidation, reduction, electrophilic aromatic substitution, and nucleophilic aromatic substitution.
Organic Synthesis: Organic chemistry is important for the design and production of new organic compounds. Organic synthesis enables the synthesis of desired molecules under laboratory conditions and contributes to the development of new drugs, polymers, chemical reagents and materials.
Natural Product Chemistry: Natural product chemistry, a branch of organic chemistry, deals with determining the structures, isolating and synthesizing organic compounds obtained from nature. This leads to the search for biologically active compounds from plants, marine organisms and microorganisms.
Organic chemistry is applied in many fields such as medicine, pharmacy, chemical industry, agriculture and materials science and appears in many aspects of our daily lives. For example, organic chemistry is important in many fields, such as the development of drugs, the production of plastics, and the development of energy storage technologies.
Inorganic Chemistry:
Inorganic chemistry is the branch of chemistry that studies compounds that do not contain carbon and excludes compounds containing carbon. It investigates compounds containing carbon, as well as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus and other elements. Inorganic chemistry basically studies the chemical properties and reactions of metal and non-metal elements.
Here are the main topics of inorganic chemistry and some related concepts:
Elements: Inorganic chemistry begins by examining the chemical properties and behavior of the elements found in the periodic table. These elements are divided into different chemical groups, such as metals (e.g. iron, copper, gold) and nonmetals (e.g. oxygen, chlorine, carbon).
Ions and Ionic Compounds: In inorganic chemistry, ions (positively or negatively charged atoms or groups of atoms) and ionic bonds (electrostatic attraction between metal and nonmetal) are important. Ionic compounds are formed by combining ions, and salts are examples of this category.
Covalent Compounds: Covalent bonds represent bonds between shared electrons of two nonmetals. In inorganic chemistry, covalent compounds (e.g. water, ammonia) and the properties of covalent bonds are studied.
Coordination Chemistry: Coordination chemistry studies how a central metal ion interacts with surrounding ligands (molecules or ions) and how complex coordination compounds are formed. This field is important for understanding chemical catalysis and the biological role of metals.
Chemical Reactions: Inorganic chemistry involves the study of chemical reactions. Examples include acid-base reactions, redox reactions, and ligand exchange reactions.
Main Group Elements and Planetary Science: Inorganic chemistry focuses on studying the chemical compositions of main group elements (e.g., groups 1, 2, 13, 14 of the periodic table) and planets. For example, the composition of minerals and components of the earth’s crust fall into this category.
Materials Science: Inorganic chemistry deals with the design and production of new materials. Materials science seeks to develop and understand the properties of various inorganic materials such as semiconductors, magnetic materials, ceramics and superconductors.
Coordination Polymers and Metal Organic Frameworks (MOFs): Inorganic chemistry contributes to the development of new materials such as coordination polymers and MOFs by studying complex structures and large molecular systems.
Inorganic chemistry is a broad branch of science with applications in energy production, environmental science, materials science, pharmaceutical chemistry, water chemistry, geochemistry and many other fields. The study of inorganic chemistry is used in many fields, from industrial processes to environmental analysis, and makes significant contributions to scientific research.
Physical Chemistry:
Physical chemistry is a discipline that represents the combination of chemistry and physical sciences. Physicochemistry is a field in which chemical reactions are examined and tried to be understood based on basic physical principles. This discipline includes thermodynamic, kinetic and spectroscopic methods to describe the physical properties, behavior and chemical reactions of chemical systems. Physical chemistry helps us understand events at the molecular level and understand how chemical reactions occur.
The main subjects of physical chemistry include:
Thermodynamics: Thermodynamics is a branch of physics that studies energy transfer and work. In physical chemistry, thermodynamics provides thermodynamic explanations of chemical equilibrium and reactions by associating them with thermodynamic concepts such as energy of chemical reactions, entropy (degree of dispersion), and Gibbs free energy.
Chemical Kinetics: Chemical kinetics covers the field that studies the rate of chemical reactions and what factors affect this rate. It includes topics such as measuring chemical reaction rates and determining reaction mechanisms.
Spectroscopy: Spectroscopy is a method that examines the interaction of light with matter. It is used for chemical analysis and determination of molecular structure. Spectroscopic methods such as UV-Vis, IR, NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance), X-ray crystallography are widely used in physical chemistry.
Electrochemistry: Electrochemistry is a field in which chemical reactions can produce electric current or direct chemical reactions using electric current. Electrochemistry is important in applications such as battery technology and the design of electrochemical cells.
Surface Chemistry: Surface chemistry is a field that studies the chemical properties and reactions of surfaces. It is used in applications such as catalysis (accelerating chemical reactions) and surface coatings.
Chemical Equilibrium and Chemical Thermodynamics: Chemical equilibrium provides thermodynamic descriptions of chemical reactions and studies how the forward and reverse directions of reactions are determined.
Physical chemistry brings together the basic principles and physical laws of chemistry to help us understand how chemical reactions occur and how these reactions can be controlled. This is important in drug design, polymer chemistry, materials science, biochemistry, and many other fields.
